), #209 + Afroasiatic pl. * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. Kadu
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Anatolian origin for Indo-European and sumerian languages Online Library The Oxford Introduction To Proto Indo European And The [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) p-Nubian The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. p-Chadic [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Ongota [116], There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA. ), (Berber, Eg. p-Igboid
English and its relatives | Sciforums p-Talodi (abbrev. shared innovation: *isin-/*usun- 'they' (originally fem./masc. A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. p-Agaw [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. Oko ), to fit on top of, go above or in front of, (Eg., Sem. WCh WOT [12] Each component of this term was derived from the name of a Biblical son of Noah as detailed in the Book of Genesis: Semitic from his first-born son Shem, and Hamitic from his second son Ham (Genesis 5:32). Its words and roots are not directly attested in any written works, but have been reconstructed through the comparative method, which finds regular similarities between languages that cannot be explained by coincidence or word-borrowing, and extrapolates ancient forms from these similarities. [130][164] In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. p-Mumuye p-Upper Cross River [168] Prefixes of - (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. Kanuri [64] In the same year T.N.
Lenguaje proto-afroasitico - gaz.wiki [135] In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. [190] Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages. Pr. Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. [144], A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state." The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. [99] In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. innovation: addition of * concisive to denote short, concentrated outflow, hence vomiting), (Sem., Eg.
Black God: The Afroasiatic Roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim If so, semantics are unclear), (pl. In the series University of California Publications in Linguistics 126. p-Edoid
Online Library The Oxford Introduction To Proto Indo European And The This language family has now been renamed Afro-Asiatic, because this term is less culture specific (Dalby, p.6). [138][177] Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases. Consider also the debate over the origins of the Afroasiastic or Afrasan languages and cultures, a linguistic group with a wide geographical distribution covering the Middle East and Northern. [37][34] Only one Cushitic language, Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include Somali, Saho-Afar, Hadiyya, and Sidaama. Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. with pre-PAA root *way thus having been a n. or adj. There is no general consensus over the location of the Urheimat, the original homeland from which began the migrations into the present locations of the speakers. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. The reconstructed consonants for Proto-Afro-Asiatic are p and b, t and d, and k and g. The Egyptian bw meaning place and the Semitic bi meaning in or from are believed to be from the reconstructed root *b- meaning foot or place (ELL, p.51). [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. This original biblical genealogy reflected political rather than linguistic realities: thus the Canaanites are descendants of Ham, although their language is closely related to Hebrew, and the Elamites are descendants of Shem, although their language is not related to Hebrew at all. [146] Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state," and a "pronominal state." [189] In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. Proto-Semitic was a contemporary of PIE.
"Proto-Afroasiatic language" | Search | Stanford Libraries [134] A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. (Though I found no mention of the origin of Semito-, it is possible that this name comes from Shem, another son of Noah). innovation: semantic narrowing to hitting with the hand), (probable *tliiz-, adj. Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic are also spoken north of the Sahara so it must be assumed that the speakers of these "dialects" migrated north likewise, though perhaps separately from the Boreafrasian speakers (Dalby, p.6). New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. Defaka [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [122] In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Adapted from Ruhlen 1987. Other Language Families and Fields of Study. At the same time, linguistic similarities such as vowel changes help show relationships among languages.
Table of Contents: Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian) In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. suff. Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. . In the above model, Taforalt draws about half of their ancestry (you can call this ANA) from a population that also (likely through a sister population) contributes the . Gumuz
Afroasiatic languages - Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core common genetic origin of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic differ considerably from the assumptions made in other works on . innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. innovation: meaning shift, from avoiding per se to feeling a need or reason to avoid), to wear out, be used up, cease to function, (Eg., Cush., Ch. In current scholarship, the most common names used for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. [54] The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his book Die Sprache der Hamiten (1912). [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. [66], Meinhof's version of the "Hamitic theory" remained prevalent until the 1940s, when it was definitively disproved by Joseph Greenberg. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. [130], Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. [92] Diakonoff argues that Proto-Afroasiatic syllables disallowed consonant clusters or vowels at the end of a syllable. in *n, as also in #210) 324. Author: Martin Bernal Language: EnglishEdition: 1stBinding: HardcoverPages: 575Publisher: Rutgers Univ PressPublication Date: 304805601149 Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. [8][9] Other proposed names which have not found widespread acceptance among the linguistic community include Erythraic, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite. [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. [156], There is no agreement about which tenses or aspects Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. C. Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. into stem), to take (bit of food or drink) into the mouth, (* is required by derived noun, root #641 following), (Eg., Sem. Proposed specific locations include the Horn of Africa, Egypt, the eastern Sahara, and the Levant. in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. Ehret's dictionary lists "Proto-South-Cushitic, original homeland of the Afroasiatic family, "The feminine endings *-ay and *-y in Semitic and Berber", "A reconstruction of the system of verb aspects in proto-Berbero-Semitic", Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, short annotations of the talks given there, The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon, Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case, Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&oldid=1142726919, Linguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-exinct, Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. [99], The majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic.
What did proto-afroasiatic people look like? - Quora [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. [127], Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. [17] The name refers to the fact that this is the only major language family with members in both Africa and Asia. innovation: addition of *t n. There are multiple possibilities: Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded, the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach, or Afroasiatic is a typological, not a genetic group of languages. SLEC Som. innovation: integration of *t dur. Beboid [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person").
Afroasiatic languages - Wikipedia The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. Linguistic guesstimates or phylogenetic speculation date the proto-language (and thus the homeland) within a wide range, from 15,000 to 6,000 years ago. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. [49][48] Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, has around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic has around 25 million. [28], Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). [95], "Afro-Asiatic" redirects here. [120] Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff instead propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various syllabic consonants (*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *, *, *, *h, *, *, *, *h) to form syllables. [27] The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. [131], Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),[133] while in others, plural forms are ungendered. [75] Consequently, scholars have offered estimates for when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken that range between 18,000 and 8,000 BCE. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Nostratic languages Wiki - Everipedia.org [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions.
I.2. Afroasiatic - Indo-European *-kep-to cease, no longer function: 327. Lafofa, p-Afroasiatic Once the Luwian hieroglyphics for God "" and Gate "" were discovered at Gbekli Tepe, this author was able to directly link the site's carved pillars and pillar enclosures to the Abrahamic/Mosaic "Word of God", . Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. [118], Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. North of the Sahara and the Ethiopian mountains are the Afro-Asiatic languages.
Social:Proto-Semitic language - HandWiki show more Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. . A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. p-Katloid In An Encyclopedia of Language, Omotic is listed as a sub-set of Cushitic, and Andrew Dalby writes the Egyptian division as "Egyptian-Coptic," even though Coptic is considered to be a sub-set of Egyptian. [40] Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. *kop-sole (of foot . Like in the English example, feet foot, vowels make the difference between separate words. I.2.1. [84] Prominent in this camp is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. [6][7], with the latter two having fallen out of favor in English but still seeing frequent usage in other languages, such as German. [132] Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability").
Afroasiatic | Ethnic group of Africa - Native Breed.org Berta [182], Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. Atlantic (Guinea)
Afro-Asiatic languages | Britannica Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. The "s-causative" may be reflected in Hausa (as -r), however this may be a language internal development.
Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. Dogon ), to get up to leave, start out, come or go forth, (Eg., Sem. [155], The degree to which the AA verbal root was triliteral (having three consonants) is debated. [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. [14], The term Semitic had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlzer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. Natioro A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. p-Kuliak (Ik) Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken, most agree that it was located within a region of Northeast Africa. There was additional language contact within the Afro-Asiatic family when Arabs invaded Egypt in 640 A.D. Coptic, a daughter language of ancient Egyptian, had flourished until that time but was replaced eventually by Arabic (Voegelin ,p13). p-Oti-Volta (p-E. Oti-Voltap-C. Oti-Volta) This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. Laal suff. [196][164] Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . p-Bantu (Swadesh list)
Angas-Sura Etymologies IX shared innovation: 'move, take' > 'take hold of'), (Cush., Ch., Eg., Sem. As the Afroasiatic languages tend to be the tongues with the longest and oldest historical record, there are not many that can beat the Proto-Afroasiatic. innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. innovation: added sense, 'to listen to'), (Ch., Sem., Berber innovation: specialized meaning 'tooth'; but note presence of that meaning isolated in single Omotic language), (innovation: Sem., Ch. *kanf-/*kinf-wing: 325. The prefixes ti and it mean she. [68] In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified as Cushitic by Greenberg were in fact an independent "Omotic" language family, a proposal that has been widely accepted but remains controversial. Fig. p-Tuu [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. [166], The so-called "Nisba" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. 2.11. [150] Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. p-Jebel p-Benue-Congo The Semitic line of Afro-Asiatic has the most language sub-sets. Great variety is incorporated in one family and this makes Afro-Asiatic an interesting topic of study. suff. [67][68], An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship - and the history of African linguistics - was the creation of the "Hamitic theory" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. Ayere-Ahan The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. innovation: stem + *n n. suff.
Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. The languages of what is now Afro-Asiatic occupy a "vast area that stretches from Morocco to Arabia" (Dalby, p.6). It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [77] Roger Blench writes that the debate has "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high civilization". In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". The following list of Proto-Afroasiatic reconstructions is from Ehret (1995). [85][86] Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. BLACK ATHENA: THE Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication, - $16.27. p-Akokoid The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east.
(Pdf) From Proto-berber to Proto-afroasiatic >>14700332 There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic Urheimat; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant, the Sahara, or the Horn of Africa, and the view that it arose in the Arabian Peninsulahas also been common historically. p-Jen ; possible n. derivation < v. in #1004). Upload your video About the author p-South Bauchi innovation: 'increase' > 'grow fat, thicken'), (root #141 + *n n. suff. (abbrev. innovation: 'to rub' > 'to scrape'), (* and *a are reconstructed because they are required in derived root #651 below), (#649 + *r diffus. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. These are some known features common to more than one branch, though (Hodge 1971; Lecarme, Lowenstamm, and Shlonsky 2000; Frajzyngier and Shay 2012): Africa is divided by geographical features, including the Sahara desert and the Ethiopian mountains. [83], A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,[78] most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. rather than the subject and object. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic ), also known as Hamito-Semitic, [3] or Semito-Hamitic, [4] and sometimes also as Afrasian or Erythraean, [5] are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara / Sahel. [121], As part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g.
proto afro asiatic wiktionary 2.12.
Is Proto-Afro-Asiatic considered to be the oldest known proto - reddit [51] The classification within West Semitic remains contested. suff. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. sing. ; short vowel required by derived verb #399), calabash (used as container, utensil, etc. The Afroasiatic language family is thought to have originated in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula around 15,000 years ago. [99] Bijogo All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger.
Iberomaurasians and Proto-Afroasiatic - Page 13 p-Cushitic FOR SALE! [197], There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. There is also some evidence from. Vol.1. Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . ); to reach out, (only C. reflexes imply 2nd form with reconstructed *a), to remove (from surface), pull, tear, or scrape off, to grumble, sigh, make sounds of complaint, (Eg., Sem. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. p-Cangin innovation: narrowing of application of v. to angry calling out), (Sem., Cush, innovation: > n. 'covering' > 'rind, bark'), (root #447+ * iter.